Comparison and Analysis Across Theories Essay Example for Free

Comparison and Analysis Across Theories Essay The purpose of the nursing theories is to provide an interrelating framework focusing on the nursing practice. The defined nursing theories promote better patient care, improve the status of nursing profession, and improve the communication between the nurses, and provide guidance to the researches and education (Keefe, 2011). Not all nursing theories have the same meanings; however, they play the important role of explaining the key concepts and principles of nursing practice in understanding way. Dorothy Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Theory and Sister Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model are considered as grand nursing theories. The grand nursing theories are a conceptual model, which identifies the focal point of nursing inquiry and guide the development of mid-range theories that will become useful to nurses and also to other health professionals. According to Walker and Avant (2011), these theories contributed in â€Å"conceptually sorting the nursing from the practice of medicine by demonstrating the presence of distinct nursing perspectives.† In this essay, Orem’s Health Care Deficit Theory and Sister Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model are compared and analyzed for their importance in nursing. Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Theory Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Theory is one of three grand theories written by Dorothea E. Orem. According to Orem, nursing becomes necessary when an individual can no longer care for him or herself. Nursing provides care through acting, guiding, supporting, teaching, and environmental manipulation promoting personal development. Orem developed this theory from her experience and personal connection with the Vincentian-Louisiana nursing tradition of the Daughters of Charity (Libster, 2008.) Roy’s Adaptation Model Roy’s Adaptation Model provides the framework for nurses by viewing the adaptability of patients to internal and external stimuli in their environments (Alligood Tomey, 2006.) Reponses to these stimuli can be either adaptive, which promote the goals of â€Å"human survival, growth, reproduction and mastery,† or non-adaptive (Roys Adaptation, 2011.) Metaparadigm The metaparadigm for nursing is the concepts that define the nursing practice. Since 1970s, person, nursing, health, and environment are considered as the core concepts of nursing theories by many nursing theorists. Person According to Orem, a person is made of a physical, psychological, and social character with variable degrees of self-care ability (Dorothea Orems Self, 2011.) Roy views a person as â€Å"an adaptive system that responds to internal and external stimuli in their environments† (Alligood Tomey, 2006.) Nursing Orem and Roy have the different attitude toward the concept of nursing. Orem sees nursing as an intervention to meet the daily needs for self-care and medical-care patients need (Dorothea Orems Self, 2011.) Roy believes nursing as a key player to help patients to develop coping mechanism and positive outcome from the constant stimuli exposure. Roy’s goal is for the patient to achieve adaptation leading to optimum health, well-being, quality of life, death with dignity, and finding in life by participating in their own care (Roy Andrews, 1999.) Health Orem defines health as â€Å"physical, mental and social well being† (Dorothea Orems Self, 2011.) Roy views health as a method used by patients to obtain their utmost possible health regardless of the presence or absence of disease. Environment Orem and Roy both state the individual exists in an environment. Orem sees the environment in two dimensions, the physical, chemical, biologic features and socioeconomic features, which influence the self-care requirements of the individual (Dorothea Orems Self, 2011.) According to Roy, the environment consists of stimuli including conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding an individual, whether focal, contextual, or residual. In Practice Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Theory and Roy’s Adaptation Model can be applied to groups or individuals, and used at any nursing settings. However, Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Theory is more recommended for the acute-care setting, where a patient receives active but short-term treatment for a severe injury or episode of illness. Orem focuses on finding the self-care deficit of the patient and providing the necessary care to promote his or her well-being. Whereas, Roy is concerned with the different stimuli that forces adaptation in order to achieve optimal health. Roy’s Adaptation Model views the person as an adaptive system which includes the four adaptive modes. These adaptive modes are: physiological-physical mode, self-concept-group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode. Although first two modes can be identified immediately, the assessment of role function mode and interdependence mode is time consuming. Therefore, Roy’s Adaptatio n Model is not suitable for acute-care setting. Conclusion Having defined nursing theories promotes better patient care, improve the status of nursing profession, and improve the communication between the nurses. In addition to guiding the nurses to provide the best care to the patients, nursing theories are used to promote and guide baccalaureate programs, administration and nursing research. Many organizations now exist to support the advancement of nursing profession. Sigma Theta Tau International, the Honor Society of Nursing, is created to â€Å"support the learning, knowledge and professional development of nurses committed to making a difference in health worldwide† (STTI Organizational, 2011.) International Orem Society â€Å"promote the advancement of nursing science and provide scholarship in the area of Orems Theory of Self-Care Deficit Nursing to lead to further advancement of knowledge for the discipline of nursing† (International Orem, 2011.) The Roy Adaptation Association (RAA) is a society of nursing scholars wh o want to â€Å"advance nursing practice by developing basic and clinical nursing knowledge based on the Roy Adaptation Model† (Roy Adaptation, 2011.) These organizations along with progression of the nursing theories will promote the advancement of nursing science and enhance the nursing profession. References Alligood, M., Tomey, A. (2006). Nursing Theory: Utilization Application (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby. Dorothea Orems Self-Care Theory. (2011, October 14). Retrieved November 6, 2011, from Nursing Theories Web site: http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/self_care_deficit_theory.html International Orem Society for Nursing Science and Scholarship. (2011). Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www.orem-society.com/ Keefe, S. (2011). About Nursing Theory. Retrieved October 22, 2011, from eHow.com Web site: http://www.ehow.com/about_5471364_nursing-theory.html Libster, M. (2008). Perspectives on the History of Self-Care. Self-Care and Dependent-care Nursing the Official Journal of the International Orem Society, 16(2), 8. Roy Adaptation Association. (2011, October 27). Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www.bc.edu/content/bc/schools/son/faculty/featured/theorist/Roy_Adaptation_Association.html Roy, C., Andrews, H. (1999). The Roy Adaptation Model (2nd ed.). Stanford, CT: Appleton and Lange. Roys Adaptation Model. (2011, April 22). Retrieved November 5, 2011, from Nursing Theories Web site: http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/Roy_adaptation_model.html STTI Organizational Fact Sheet: Mi ssion and Vision. (2011). Retrieved November 5, 2011, from http://www.nursingsociety.org/aboutus/mission/Pages/factsheet.aspx Walker, L. O., Avant, K. C. (2011). Strategies For Theory Construction in Nursing (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Health Science.

The Increased Competiveness And Agression Of Businesses

The Increased Competiveness And Agression Of Businesses In the authors perspective, Increasing competitiveness and aggression in the business environment has necessitated transformation of business practices to keep up with the dynamic environment. For instance, an organization needs to develop key skill (core competencies and strategic capabilities) needed as the basis for resource-based strategies (John Thompson Frank Martin 2005). Strategic capabilities are defined as the resources and skills available to an organization that needed to survive and win its competitors. The resource-based view of strategy: the competitive advantage and superior performance of an organisation are explained by the distinctiveness of its capabilities Johnson, SK., Whittington (2008, ch3, p94). This paper will critically analyse how eBays strategic capabilities might provide sustainable competitive advantage. Proposing and justify a structural type for which would maximise its strategic capabilities Making eBay work as a case study by Jill Shepard, Segal Graduate School of Business, Simon Fraser University, Canada. This essay will begin by explaining the concept of strategic capabilities, strategy capabilities using an analytical framework, core competencies, competitive advantage, how organisations strategic capabilities can be analysed and measured using marketing tool called SWOT. The second section will briefly discuss what organisational structure is all about and types of organisational structures, present eBays structure, proposing and justifying a structural type for eBay which would maximise its strategic capabilities. Thirdly, implications and conclusions based on findings of the chapters and case study. The sensitivity of strategic capability is particularly necessary since it is concern with whether an organisations strategy continues to modify the environment and the opportunities and threats that exist. However, an organisations capabilities may be found the edge of strategic development, in the manner of creating new opportunities by stretching and exploiting the organisations capabilities such a manner which competitors get it or in genuine difficult to copy or create a new ability. This requires organisation to be innovative in the way they develop and utilize their capability. This is the resource-based view of strategy. Capabilities refer to the organizations ability to utilise its resources effectively. The author shall be discussing strategic capability considering the similarities and differences between resources and competencies. Strategic capability could be defined as the combination of resources and competencies of an organization that it requires to survive and participate in the industry. Strategic Capabilities and Competitive Advantage As regards resources, tangible resources are visible and physical assets of an organization such as building and people. Intangible resources are invisible asset of an organization such as knowledge. Physical resources are the visible resources of the organization comprising of machines or production components e.t.c. while financial resources are the resources used to operate the organization on a daily basis includes cash, creditor e.t.c. Human resources are the combination such as training and recruitment, skills and knowledge of an organizational networks. Intellectual resources are intangible resources that involve patents, brands, business system, and customer database. Resources is vital to an organization because they provide the organization to produce at lower cost or create a superior product or service. Resources such as tangible and intangible of an organisation are not enough to survive and competition in a dynamic environment. It depends on the organizationals ability to deploy their resources of its capacity and competencies in an efficiently in the organizational activities and processes. Threshold resources à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ IT server platforms and space à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Offices and facilities à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Appropriate personnel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sufficient customers and suppliers Threshold competences à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Account management à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ All other general managerial skills à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sophisticated ICT skills à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Customers and suppliers who are competent Unique resources à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The biggest on-line electronic exchange platform à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The eBay brand à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ First mover advantage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ An active and vocal community of users à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Learning from experience Unique competences à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ A unique form of account management that balances central control versus decentralised community involvement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Leadership in terms of ability to renew the Board and keep a sense of consistency à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Electronic platform management skills à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Partnering on the internet (deciding when and how to compete) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Web 2.0 management skillsThere are various capabilities (resources or competencies) that are in Threshold and Unique resources explained below: Threshold resources could be termed to be the basic resources required to meet customers basic requirements in order to exist. Unique resources are resources that strengthening and stabilizing competitive advantage which are devilishly difficult to cope imitate and obtain by competitors in the market. Threshold competencies are activities and processes required to meet customers basic requirements in order to exist in a given market. Unique competencies are activities that strengthening and stabilizing competitive advantage which is extremely difficult to cope, imitate and obtain by competitors in a given market. Threshold Capabilities are capabilities required/ need to exist/ remain in the market. Firms having threshold capabilities are less innovative, little focus on current customer requirements, and do not welcome changes. Competitive Capabilities are capabilities required/ needed to get a competitive advantage. Firms having competitive capabilities welcome changes, mad to acquire new technologies before competitors (These days software to facilitate sales workforce collaboration software are new arrivals in the corporate world), coping with current customer requirements pursuing the environment of continuous improvement in their organizations. Competitive Advantage It can be defined as the ability of an organisation to out-perform its competitors (Campbell, Stonehouse and Houston, 2000, p. 324). Measurement is possible in terms of superior profitability, increase in market share, return on investment, etc. (Stonehouse et al., 2000). However, it is a fundamental aim of business strategy to maintain competitive advantage over certain given of time called sustained competitive advantage (SCA). Johnson and Scholes (1999) suggest low-price, differentiation or switching cost strategies to build up competitive advantage and hold it over time. Core competence are the skills and abilities by which resources are deployed through an organisations activities and processes such as to achieve competitive advantage in ways that others cannot imitate or obtain ( Johnson, Scholes Whittington, 2008, ch. 3 p.97). Sources of Cost Efficiency: Managers of most organisations currently lead management of cost as source or key to Strategic capabilities advantage. In order to maintain low cost, attention must be paid to these key drivers such as economics of scale, supply cost, products product design, experience, Growth, unit cost should down slopping and first-mover advantage. In order to sustaining competitive advantage over time as a manager while managing cost efficiently and continuously, other vital criteria are of immense importance namely: 1. Value: Organisation must be able to build capabilities that are of value to its customers. 2. Rarity: For an organisation to sustain competitive advantage, it should possess unique capabilities. There are just three important key points to consider about the extent to which unique competence might provide sustainable competitive advantage: Transferability: Rarity to a great extent depends on who own the competence and difficulty of transferring it. Sustainability: How long will the manager be able to sustain it unique competencies? Most time is temporary and competitive transfer it over time. So an organisation must be dynamic by nature by look out for other bases of sustainability. Core rigidity: This is another case of redundancy. 3. Inimitable: It all involves identifying capabilities that likely to remain for a reasonable time and impossible or very difficult to imitate or copy. So, in order for an organisation to achieve and sustain advantage and core competencies the following factors must be considered below: (1). They pave ways for higher level of performance more than rivals own. (2). They are in most cases very hard and difficult to imitate. There are two reasons for core competencies of an organisation to be imitated because they are complex. Complexity: (a.) Internal linkages. This is as a result of linking the activities and processes that together deliver value to customers. (b.) External interconnectedness: This can best be termed as co-specialisation. Culture and history: It involves core competencies may be embedded in an organisational culture. Causal ambiguity: This is another good reason why core competence cant be imitated by competitors. It is very difficult to discover the causes and effects underpinning organisations advantage. There are two types of ambiguity namely characteristic ambiguity and linkage ambiguity. Non-substitutability: adding and providing value to customers that are complex and ambiguity making it impossible / very difficult to copy. To sustain competitive advantage over, an organisation must strategically position itself in such a way that capabilities in ways that activities and resources and competencies are deployed as to sustain competitive advantage over it competitors. Diagnosing strategic capability: If an organization is to achieve competitive advantage by adding value to customer, the following must be understood below: Value Chain: Describes the in and out categories of activities of an organisation that both create a product/ services. It is more directly concerned with the creation and delivery of a product/ services. Value Network: Describes the inter-organisational link and relationship needed to create a product. Activity Maps: It shows how the various activities are linking together in an organisation. Benchmarking: It deals with comparison of both programs strategic position of rivals. SWOT: Summarises analysis of Business environment (Opportunities and threats) Strategic capabilities (Strengths and weaknesses). Brief History of eBay EBay Inc. is an internationally recognized e-commerce company that manages eBay.com, an online auction and shopping website in which people and businesses purchase and sell globally a variety of goods and services to a wide range of clients (Filley Aldan, 1980 p 56). Currently, eBay is a multi-billion dollar company with physical infrastructures of operations in more than thirty countries. EBay website was founded in San JoseHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California, California, on September 3, 1995, by French-born Iranian computer programmer Pierre Omidyar. Millions of collectables, interior decorations, appliances, electronics, furniture, trappings, equipment, vehicles, and other miscellaneous items are listed, bought, or sold daily on eBay. EBay expanded from its original set-time auction format to include Buy It Now standard shoppings online advertisements; online event ticket trading; online money transfers and other services. In addition, eBay launched its Bu siness Industrial category in the year 2006 breaking into the industrial surplus business (Whitten, 1987 p 6). Analytical framework analysis of eBay Inc To strategically maintain as well as promoting its success level, eBay has a highly motivated human capital. This is through provision of a favorable working environment comprised of satisfaction of physiological needs, provision of safety within the work, availability of career growth opportunities for self actualization as well as self esteem. This has made eBay working force to be oriented to the organizational goals and objectives. This has subsequently accrued substantial benefits to the organizations performance (Cameron Whitten, 1983 p 67). Apart from internal customer satisfaction, eBay has embarked on satisfying its external customers in a number of ways. For instance, a diverse range of products as well as services can be accessed by their customer by just a click of the button (Yukl, 2010. P 43). EBay has a collection diverse range of product. The probability of any customer with a given unique needs for a given product or service lacking the desired need or service is significantly low. Subsequently, eBay serves a central or a core point area where all customers with diverse needs as well as wants can integrate into their satisfaction. According to statistical reports which were collected in the United States of America, the satisfactory level of customers accessing or conducting their business through eBay platform is significantly high. Consequently, the organization has managed to acquire a high market share (Hedger, Nostrum Starbuck, 1976 p 67). The risks associated with ecommerce trading activities have been significantly reduced by the open communication strategies and channels which have been adopted by the eBay organization. For instance, eBay has a well conversant informed customer care services which equip their customer with necessary information on any information concerning the Internet trading. For instance, eBay has a safe online payment channel which can be adopted or used by its customers. Online payment and other fiscal transactions processes have reduced risks associated with check payments as well as travelling with liquid cash (Meyer, 1977 p 81). SWOT analysis of eBay Inc SWOT analysis entails the evaluation process of the organizations internal and external environmental elements which are likely to induce a change in the operations of the business entity. Consequently, SWOT analysis comprise of evaluating external factors such as opportunities and threats which are known to face the organization as well evaluating the internal elements with mainly focus on weaknesses as well as on the organizations strengths. EBay Inc is an organization which has adopted technological elements into its mode of operation. Consequently, a number of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities as well as threats may dominate it area of operation (Hedger, Nostrum Starbuck, 1976 p 89). Evaluating on the strengths which are possessed by this organization, eBay has developed a vast and an immense number of clients or stakeholders who largely contributes to it overall performance. These stakeholders include current customers, supportive client such as financiers as well as reliable employees. In addition, it has developed a strong financial backbone which has been supportive to it overall goal achievement. Also, eBay has developed a strong customer-organization bond through the creation of high confidence level between the organization and its clients. This is through customer analysis and delivery of services and ordered goods in the appropriated needed time. Bearing in mind ninety nine percent of eBay transactions are carried out through online platform, people are generally afraid to deal with virtual elements especially on matters concerning their fiscal status. However, eBay has secured a substantial number of such customers by creating a high confidence level (Zammuto, Cameron, 1985 p 6). Another eBays dominance, it is the first-mover advantage as regards online auction site. Consequently, most of its customers felt no worries about going about buying goods physically. Therefore, this triggered most customers to come back. Ebay has a very strong business model and updating it. Just as it was redefined by Meg Whiteman by establishing strong linkages of activities in the operational aspect of the organization. eBay also had a very strong technological base e.g. leveraging ICT. Using Pay pal account as means of payment made every transaction be secured and easy. Nevertheless, eBay is faced by a number of weaknesses, it has a poor organizational structure which limits it contact with it clients. Maintenance of customers usually requires an intimate contact which sometimes involves reading of facial expressions. In addition, though eBay website can be accessed in almost all parts of the world through the Internet, customers in some geographical regions cannot be served with eBay services. This is contributed by poor distribution channels which limit the eBay services to some specific regions only. A part from these weaknesses, the organization is also faced by a number of emerging threats. For instance, the barriers to entry in the Internet based trading systems are relatively low a factor which has led to a high number of entrants. This has posed as a threat to the operations of eBay Inc (Gallos, 2008. P 68). Despite these weaknesses and threats being faced by eBay Inc, there are a number of opportunities which the organization can effectively utilize in order to maximize it profits. For instance, the technological advancement which has been witnessed in the electronic world can be utilized to enhance the customer base. In addition, eBay has an opportunity of merging with a number of suppliers and other stakeholders to boost its overall performance. This is usually based on the fiscal status which eBay has obtained since it times of operations in the Internet based services (Kast Rosenzweig, 1972 p 78). Capabilities that have provided eBay with a competitive advantage This organization has a strong financial background which enables it to embark successfully on new profit generating strategies. In addition, it has embarked on product diversification as one strategy to promote its profit generating factors. EBay is a multi-billion dollar company with physical infrastructures of operations in more than thirty countries. Millions of collectables, interior decorations, appliances, electronics, furniture, trappings, equipment, vehicles, and other miscellaneous items are listed, bought, or sold daily on eBay (Pierce, 2003 p 6). Strategic capabilities of the eBay in a nutshell might include: Business model creation and updating:- The business model of eBay is brilliant and simple. They facilitate a service of enabling transactions between millions of users. They also have no inventory. eBay does not have to consider production, packaging, and shipping of the goods sold. There is no need for a large number of employees at achieve their organizational goals. The main source of costs for eBay is technical. They perform tasks as maintenance of servers and networks. This is the marketplace Internet business model being used to much of its potential. Revenue is generated in both business to consumer and business to business transactions. The auction and transaction revenue will continue to rise as the number of users rises. Ebay has a very strong business model and updating it. Just as it was redefined by Meg Whiteman by establishing strong linkages of activities in the operational aspect of the organization. Managing growth: eBay reported record consolidated Q1-07 net revenues of $1.77 billion, representing a growth rate of 27% year over year. GAAP operating income was $468 million, an increase of 45% year over year, and represented 26.5% of net revenues. Non-GAAP operating income in Q1-07 was $593 million, representing a 33.6% operating margin and a 29% year-over-year increase. Leveraging ICT:- ICT as both strategic and operational at the same time. So getting the server up and running initially would have been strategic but now managing traffic would be considered operational, whereas incorporating any new versions of the Internet and its functionality would be considered strategic. Accommodating different high speed broadband penetrations within individual countries would currently be strategic but become less of a strategic issue over time. Knowledge management:- Knowledge in organisational terms does not mean data and information alone. It means experience both of individuals and between individuals (i.e. of groups or across an organisation). This sharing takes place, not least, through the day to day activities and routines in organizations. If strategic capability is conceived of in terms of competence (i.e. activities as well as resources), then the relationship of strategic capability to organisational knowledge. So, it darned close. It becomes even closer if robust (non- imitable) competencies are conceived of as linked and embedded competencies. Account management:- eBays technology allow every particulars of users both sellers and buyer to be traced since very users must first register to again access to buy or sell. This create a great deal of trust among users. Customer involvement:- ebay managers listen to all their customers and always meet the needs as regards what they want to sell/ buy and how they want to do it. And more so, the management involves their customers by inviting 10 sellers and buyers all over the country to their main office every few months to discuss the company in dept. Service and shareholder management:- eBay has developed a vast and an immense number of clients or stakeholders who largely contributes to it overall performance. These stakeholders include current customers, supportive client such as financiers as well as reliable employees. In addition, it has developed a strong financial backbone which has been supportive to it overall goal achievement. Rather than, be critical:- Meg might look to the challenges that the company faces ahead of time. These might include not becoming complacent about success, how to keep customers passionate about the company and how to expand into new geographical areas. Sustainability and dynamic capabilities The attainment of any eBays goals and objectives is directly reflected by the kind of leadership and environment found in that organization. Different managers and human resource organizers embrace various forms of leadership. Nevertheless, their overall aim objective is to adhere to the stipulated mission with no signs of complacency and a subsequent attainment of the organizational goals. Being a leader in any form of business entails a set of processes connected to directing and guiding employees towards the attainment of stipulated goals. This endeavor of assure that the business entity is heading towards its vision comprise of effective employee motivation, embracement of appropriate leading structure and strategies and timely effective communication among the internal and external members affecting the business entity (Clark, 2010). EBay has been dynamic to embrace technological measures which are aimed in maintaining a lead in the field of it operations. For example, incorpora tion of new modern software, use of Internet security tools as well as developing future oriented goals to cater for its customers (Gallos, 2008 p 34). Frequent trainings and seminars for it employees can effectively boost the competence level for employees in eBay Inc. In addition, online training and guidance manuals can highly boost the performance level for the eBay operations. Organisational Structure The organising process leads to the creation of organisation structure. Organisation structure can be defined as the framework in which the organisation defines how tasks are divided, resources are deployed and departments are coordinated (Samson Daft, 2009, p. 328). The structure of an organisation should be set up in such a way as to help the organisation accomplish its mission in an efficient and effective manner. The mission of an organisation can be defined by its mission statement. A mission statement is designed to answer the most fundamental questions for every organization: Why do we exist? What are we here for? What is our purpose? As such, mission statements form the corner-stone and the starting-point for any major strategic planning initiative (Christopher K. Bart, 2001, p. 19). An organisations structure can be represented visually with an organisation chart (Samson Daft, 2009, p. 328). Structure has three components: complexity, formalisation and centralisation. Complexity refers to the degree of specialisation of an organisations employees, how labour is divided, the number of levels and geographical dispersion. Formalisation is concerned with the degree of rules and procedures, and centralisation refers to levels of decision making (Holtzhausen, 2002, p. 325). The characteristics of organisation structure include work specialisation (the degree to which organisational tasks are subdivided into individual jobs; also called division of labour), chain of command (An unbroken line of authority that links all individuals in the organisation and specifies who reports to whom), authority (The formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decisions, issue orders and allocate resources to achieve organisationally desired outcomes) and responsibility (The duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been assigned), span of managerial control (the number of emplo yees who report to a supervisor), and centralization (The location of decision authority at a single point, usually near top organisational levels) and decentralization (The dispersed location of decision authority, usually near lower organisational levels). These dimensions represent the vertical hierarchy and define how authority and responsibility are distributed. Departmentalization describes how organisation employees are grouped (Samson Daft, 2009). Types of structures The three most common generic organizational structures are the functional structure, the divisional structure and the matrix structure. There are also hybrid structures consisting of network structure and team structure. Functional Structure The functional structure is a direct descendant of the bureaucratic structure. It is based on a groups function or dedicated activities in an organization such as sales and marketing, finance and operations. The structures effectiveness is based on this division of labour. Smaller to medium-sized organizations with limited product ranges tend to favour the functional structure (Martinsons Martinsons, 1994, p. 24). Advantages of functional structure: Efficient use of resources economies of scale In-depth skill specialisation and development Career progress within functional departments Top manager direction and control Excellent coordination within functions High-quality technical problem solving Best with one or few types of products Disadvantages of functional structure Poor communication across functional departments Slow response to external changes, lagging innovation Decisions concentrated at the top of hierarchy, creating delay Responsibility for problems is difficult to pinpoint Limited view of organisational goals by employees Limited general management training for employees Less innovation (Samson Daft, 2009) (Duncan, 1979) Divisional Structure This structure is used as companies become larger and begin to diversify their product line. The company is divided into separate units based on different products or markets. The company breaks up its operations into manageable units or little companies which then operate under a mechanistic structure (Martinsons Martinsons, 1994, p. 24). Advantages of divisional structure: Fast response, flexibility in an unstable environment Fosters concern for customers needs because product responsibility and contact points are clear Excellent coordination across functional departments Easy pinpointing of responsibility for product problems Emphasis on overall product and division goals Development of general management skills Best in a large organisation with several products Disadvantages of divisional structure Duplication of resources across divisions Less technical depth and specialisation in divisions Poor coordination across divisions Less top management control Competition for corporate resources Eliminates economies of scale in functional departments. Makes integration and standardization across product lines difficult (Samson Daft, 2009) (Duncan, 1979) The Matrix Structure The matrix structure was the structure of the 1970s (Miller, 1986). It was seen as a way of bridging the advantages of the functional and divisional structures. The matrix structure is based on a dual chain of command. The functional departments are used to gain economies of specialization while the project teams focus on particular products or markets. Each employee in the matrix structure is responsible for one functional department and one project manager, hence the dual chain of command (Martinsons Martinsons, 1994, p. 25). Advantages of matrix structure: More efficient use of resources than single hierarch Flexibility, adaptability to changing environment Development of both general and specialist management skills Interdisciplinary cooperation, expertise available to all divisions Enlarged tasks for employees Best in medium-sized organizations with multiple products Disadvantages of matrix structure Frustration and confusion from dual chain of command High conflict between two sides of matrix Many meetings, more discussion than action Human relations training needed Power dominance by one side of the matrix. Team-based structure With a team-based structure, the entire organisation is made up of horizontal teams that coordinate their work and work directly with customers to accomplish the organisations goals (Samson Daft, 2009, p. 344). Advantages of team structure: Reduced barriers among departments, increased compromise Less response time, quicker decisions Better morale, enthusiasm from employee involvement Reduced administrative overhead Less absenteeism Increased performance Higher quality products Reduced turnover Disadvantages of team structure Dual loyalties and conflicts Time and resource spent on meetings Unplanned decentralisation (Samson Daft, 2009) (Harris, 1992) Network structure: Advantages: Global competitiveness Workforce flexibility/challenge Reduced administrative overhead Disadvantages: No hands-on control Can lose organisational part Employee loyalty weakened Analysing eBay current and the best organizational structure for the eBay Inc eBays organizational structure is a source of competitive advantage as it is the basis for the companys ability to process information

This Boys Life by Tobias Wolff Essay examples -- Papers

This Boy's Life by Tobias Wolff Mark Twain once said, "We are creatures of outside influences -- we originate nothing within. Whenever we take a new line of thought and drift into a new line of belief and action, the impulse is always suggested from the outside." In the memoir This Boy’s Life, by Tobias Wolff Jack shows that he is a creature of outside influence. Some examples of this are that he copies what his friends do, he doesn't try to shape his own life, and he is heavily influenced by the male figures in his life. Throughout this novel, Jack does whatever his friends do. When he was living in Seattle with his mother, he was influenced by his new friends to do bad things. His friends, Silver and Terry were kids with no one to discipline them. They befriended Jack and together they caused lots of trouble, â€Å"We broke street lights. We opened the doors of parked cars on hills and released the emergency brakes so the smashed into the cars below†¦. And we stole†(61). This shows that although Jack is good on the inside, he does whatever his friends do. Later when he an...

Personal Narrative - Finding Truth in Prayer :: Personal Narrative

Personal Narrative- Finding Truth in Prayer Glory, God stared me in the face. A man, my savior stood at the curtain. â€Å"Are you planning to pray?† he inquired. I blinked twice, â€Å"Um... yes?† Praying isn’t my ‘thing,’ but I figured â€Å"When in Vatican City...† I stepped past the man and into Enlightenment. Behind the curtain a room heavy with relics awaited. People stood, sat in the corners; heads down and hands clasped the room was immobile. Satan himself could not stir a soul. I took my place in the pew furthest from the front in a dark corner. Mindlessly I closed my eyes, hands and tilted my head. â€Å"Ask God for three things† my stepmother whispered in my ear. I opened my eyes. The room was remarkably bright. Angels flew above my head. How could I have never noticed before? And the altar before me rang with a holy, resonant sound. And this sound, this deep hum filled my mind, almost deafening any insecurities that I could ever find. This projection left me feeling whole, left me feeling safe and secure. I was ready, I closed my eyes. Just like Robert Frost’s â€Å"Mending Wall.† It occurred to me that when you wall something out (God), you’re also walling something in (the very glimmer that one day I’d have faith). I chose to break down that wall. But what to ask for? Here I am in what has to be one of the holiest places I will ever encounter and I’m gearing to pray. I don’t pray. What do I want? â€Å"Truth.† I heard myself whisper. Yes, the word flowed right out of me. An eternal flame had been lit, and I felt remarkably warm. I could not contain myself, I continued to whisper â€Å"I want to find the truth. Any and all truth, and somehow find its’ beauty.† Sure it wasn’t exactly three things that I had asked from him, but I figured if I put this one on hold, he’d be sure to listen another day. Bombarded, my mind filled with a million thoughts and ideas. I felt like I could see through any problem solely because I’m meant to. I knew what I wanted - the mere idea swallowed me. There is truth, and a faith that will liberate me. And my job, my mission is find it’s beauty. To chisel away the inconsistencies and fallacies of life until I’m left with nothing polished or refined, only the raw truth.

Danger In The Air At North Intermmediate School In Wilmington? :: essays research papers

Danger in the Air At North Intermmediate School in Wilmington?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is there danger in the air at the North Intermediate School in Wilmington? Apparently carbon dioxide levels have been found to be above acceptable levels in some class rooms. According to a report dated Dec. 9, 1996, by ATC Associations, an independent consulting firm hired by the Town of Wilmington to conduct Indoor Air Quality and Microbiological testing at the school. â€Å"All indoor air quality parameters were within normal guideline ranges with the exception of consistently elevated levels of carbon dioxide and low relative humidity levels throughout the school,† said the report.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  High levels of carbon dioxide indoors can be a sign of poor ventilation in a building. Carbon dioxide is an odorless gas which can cause discomfort at lower levels and act as a mild narcotic at higher concentrations. According to the Dec. 9 report, â€Å"If carbon dioxide levels exceed 800-1000 parts per million(ppm), the ventilation system is not effectively working.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the Wilmington School Committee meeting on Feb. 12, school Superintendent Dr. Geraldine A. O'Donnell stated that there was a complaint of a musty odor in one of the class rooms after heavy rains on Nov. 6. There were also complaints of nausea and headaches from numerous students. The room was inspected by Roger Lessard, Public Building Superintendent. Mr. Lessard found the odor was being caused by Science chemicals stored there and mildew on a window ledge in the room.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  School principal Doug Anderson checked with the school nurse for the attendance rate between Oct. 22 and the first week in November and found nothing out of the ordinary. However, being concerned about the safety of the students and staff, Mr. Anderson requested Lessard hire an outside consultant to evaluate the school's air quality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Town of Wilmington then contracted with ATC Associations of Woburn, Environmental, Geoteccnical, and Materials Professionals. ATC conducted a test at the school Nov. 21 and sampled 19 locations. 11 of the 19 locations tested had a carbon dioxide level of over 800 ppm. The average carbon dioxide level was 900ppm showing the results of inadequate ventilation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ATC explained numerous ways to improve the school's ventilation system. These included: trimming the shrubs close to vents; opening windows to allow air

European Politics Essay

European Union has a evolutional history. Many Countries struggle to attain Independence’s this the only aim of the European Nations’struggle? This paper has discussed the reasons there struggle some being to attain Independence, others needed to be autonomous and others wanting to unite with Russia. They faced many challenges, and were organized in parties. European politics is involved with the continuous political evolution. Due to the high political unity amongst European states as well as the state’s long history, European politics is more detailed compared to other continents. The European political make-up has been contributed to by its historical events, culture, economy and its geographical location. European Union is dominant in the modern European politics. This occurred since the collapse of the Eastern Bloc of communists’ states and the fall of iron curtains. After World War II the EU expand towards the East and included 27 states as members. These states are represented in the European parliament. European has been undergoing political transformation even since 1763 to 1787. After the seven years’ war (1756-63) there was a stability period of peace. In 1702-1714, there was the war of the Spanish succession, and this was after many years of the great World War. This war took fifty years. Some British and French statesmen had tried to create a long lasting peace by use of collective security, but the old contests had not stopped after the Utrecht-Rastatt’s peace and some more including Northern Europe, Germany, Near East and Italy developed in the succeeding decades. It was in the seven years’ war of 1756-63 when a climax of forty years of imbalance of struggle for power was reached. This war was bigger than the war of Spanish succession and more blood was shed, and ended up with its fighters tired of fighting and exhausted. The results were decisive in continental theatres as well as in maritime, but in varying at up. Spain was defeated by Britain in the fight for colonies and seas control defeated France on sea, and by Prussia on land. This made France to collapse financially. The aggressive spirit of King Frederick the Great of Prussia was decreased at the end of war. European states are part of the international organizations which are political and economically. Almost all European states are members of European council which is the only Pan-European organization. The activities of the European council are programs that harmonize regulations and law amongst the member state in citizenship, bioethics. Heritage protection the linguistic and cultural minority right among others. In other terms the council can be related to regional version state jointly related to government and national union. It plays role as a market, with customs union, common policy in Agriculture and Fisheries as well as acting as a single currency with thirteen of its twenty seven members adopting. This union constitutes the largest economy worldwide consisting 2007 nominal GDP of 15. 849 million USD. The union primarily started as an economic union before evolving into a political policy, and this has been contributed by the many political areas within EU competence. There has been a debate between and within some member states concerning more development in political competence of EU. There was a military alliance of European states together with United States of America and Canada, commonly known as North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which was founded as a collective security as a result of World War II. This alliance targeted to provide defense incase the Soviet Union attacked the European allies of United States. The attack was to be treated as if it had attacked the United States bearing in mind it was composed of the largest military. They expected to get the best defense, but the Soviet never invaded Europe, instead the alliance was involved in September 12th 2001, responding to the previous day’s attack on the United States. GUAM organization for Democracy and Economic Development was formed to counter the Russia’s influence in that area. This group constituted four common wealth independent states (CIS) that is Georgia, Ukraine, Azerba-Ijan and Moldova, though it was encouraged and backed up by the United States. It reached a time when it appeared to have ceased its operation but there is a possibility to revive its operation through developments. The common wealth of the independent states (CIS) has few supranational powers, but it’s a symbolic organization that has power to coordinate trade, security, law making and finance. It came up with a full-fledged free trade zone between its members, who are 12 states of 15 states of former Soviet Union, excluding Baltic States, in 2005. This confederation has enhances cooperation on democratization and has prevented cross border crime. In devolutionary pressures, movements requiring independence or autonomy varied in politically and popularity support depending on campaign, and the kind of movements Georgia has two region and wanted to join with Russia, in Italy, there was a small independent movement, and the Lega Nord, the Italian political party, supports, blamed southern Italy for blocking progress and getting tax funds away and condemned them as racial nationalist group. On the other hand it supported the Northern Italy. Italy is to be divided into two countries, the North and the South. In Netherlands, Frisian National party sought autonomy for Friesland without caring about Fresian culture and without striving for total independent. Transylvania belonged to Austria-Hungary before the Treaty of Triarion. There is small minority Hungarian ethic who felt like reuniting with Hungary. These are habitants of Romania. The North Caucasus border of Russia, supports has movements in search for independence. The English Democrats in United Kingdom saw the need for England to devolve. In United Kingdom is composed for a mixture of many parties with different wills. In this state, there are movements and parties that needed independence and at the same time some parties wanted to be incorporated in the Republic of Ireland thus saw not need of the province being in the union. After the election of Victor Yuschenko as a president some areas in Ukraine wanted to join Russia. Ukraine did not only have movements that wanted complete independence, but also the urge to get higher autonomy, after uniting with Russia. Though some autonomous regions of Spain are peaceful, they violently acquired the peace. In 2006, there were international negotiations to define final status of Kosovo a Serbia’s province, which all through had territorial and political dispute between its ethnic population and the Serbian government organization. In 1532, some movements in Northern France lost independence, and they wanted to regain it. These countries in the State had different needs as pertains the movement’s nature or rather composition to the kind of campaign. These needs or rather goals varied from attaining autonomy, attaining independence or the need to reunite with Russia. The Unions’ membership enlargement poses a political issue trying to know from the diving the extent at which the block should move. The block location in terms of size and the fear of the block moving very far and including other regions created a challenge to the European Union. European nation is divided into council, parliament council of European Union and commission. The commission has the mandate to Rome up with registration and the use of law each member state is represented by a member. President comes from the commission. The union’s prime minister has different powers with the president Directorate-General (DG) and commissioner, but they have similar roles. The councils have no delegated power to the union’s supranational institutions, and have no treaties official power. The head of state has similar roles to council. Legislative branch of the union incorporate parliament and council, whose formation differs as in the parliament is elected directly while the council is formed and mainly of national ministers. Insensitive areas have lower control of national minister. The powers in the union are given according to pillars. These pillars are usually three; the first one being that of community, the second is Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) while the third is ‘Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal matters (PJCC). Just to mention, the 1st First pillar entails common Fisheries poly, Agricultural policy, Environmental law, Immigration Poly, Education and culture among others. The second pillar has security policy and foreign policy and the third pillar deals with human beings trafficking Fraud and bribery, terrorism, weapon smuggling among others. Each pillar’s principles differ on intergovernmental and supranational basis, supranationalism being higher in 1st pillar. After every five years by adult suffrage, votes are casted. Despite having no voting system, there should be a ratio in representing either singly or under a party the area at which the votes casting is done can be in whole or subdivided, and election threshold should be below five percent. The European law requires to be bound to. The union makes legislative acts and all its members are expected to bind to a direct applied law (regulation, a framework of objectives in which a national law in order to achieve its goals, and a decision based on particular issue are the key forms by which a union can present its legislative acts. (Hay&Menon,2007). European bases their constitution texts on their treaties. The role of the European treaties is to form institution which are given aims of the union, which are set also by the treaties and the institution should always aim at attain the set aims. Currently the European integration is under four treaties, namely; the Treaty of European nation which was put to work in November 1993 after it was signed on 7th February 1992 in Maastricht. This treaty was involved with security policy and Home Affairs. The Treaty showing European Economic Community (ECC) which was put into action on 1st January 1958 and was signed at the same time with Euratom treaty, in Rome on March the 25th of 1957, and due to the place at which it was signed, its usually also referred to as the Treaty of Rome. The treaty of Paris was put to work on 23rd day of July 1952 but expired on 23rd day of July 2002. It was signed on the 18th day of April, 1951, and was involved with putting into place the European steel and coal community. The forth treaty was involved with the development of European atomic Energy community which is commonly referred to as Euratom Treaty and was signed at Rome on the 25th day of March, 1957. There were times when these treaties expired or required additional or subtraction of some of its terms and roles thus the need for changes and reforms. European political party is obliged to operate transitionally in the state, and is usually funded and recognized by the European Union. Their formation is usually bases on partly parties in the whole Europe. As per the European parliament and commission as there were ten (10) recognized parties by 2006, namely European People Party which was the first to be formed, then the European Socialist Party was formed, followed by European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party, the Free Alliance European Party, the European Areas Party, Alliance for Europe of the Nations, European theft party, European Democratic party, Alliance of Independent Democrats in Europe and EU Democratic, which were formed respectively. These parties mostly consider co-operating and working as a coalition as this makes them stronger and gives the party a chance to get higher financial fund rate from the parliament at the same time ensuring they have access to committee’s seat which an independent party can afford to access due to the cost. To enhance the uniting of parties, however requires that the member states votes for the Groups MEPs should not be less than one-fifth, that its MEPs can create a group of their wish, that all MEPs in a group should be registered in only one group and that, a groups MEPs should be of the same political goal. It’s only after fulfilling these requirements that two groups can join and unite to for a coalition thus enjoying the privileges. The Groups can either be organized from many European parties, national parties or be made of MEPs of a single European political party. An Account of the changes that the European Socialist Parties have undergone since the Second World War. European Socialist Part (PES) in a party in the European political party composed of equal number of labor, social democratic, and socialist parties from members’ states of European Union and also from Norway. The socialist party constitutes socialist group in parliament which is composed of more than 200 MEPs thus making the group to be second largest, in the European parliament. This socialist group was there since 1953 and the socialist party was formed back in 1992. Ever since it’s the party held the largest single group position in the parliament. After the party’s formation in 1953, socialist party Henri Spaak was elected first president, with Guy Mollet elected the first bureau and secretariat apart from being the chair. The socialists attempt to produce a common European socialist’s program in 1961 being outlaid by an enlargement application. Despite their congress trying to enhance more democratization, and parliament powers in 1962, it took them longer than they expected since this was considered in 1969, after Kate Strobel MEP winning the 1st woman chair. They continued to achieve and rule and in 1971’s elections saw their member, Walter Behrendt as the second parliament president. It took few years since then when other states joined the community and brought with them some more parties, which enlarged the community as well as the congress. These states included Ireland, United Kingdom and Denmark and after meeting they made social policy in which they were entitled to democracy, equality and give them the right to work in the European economy. Elections were carried out again in 1975, and socialist Georges Spe’nale was as the parliament’s president. After the union with Ireland, Denmark and United Kingdom, a confederation of the European communities’ socialist party was formed. Their was an election manifesto, which the confederation signed after the parliaments first direct elections in 1979, and the manifesto objective was aimed at ending discrimination, promoting peace, fighting pollution and ensuring the ability to decent work among others. They were the largest group in the parliament. Two years after the direct election, its first status was signed and they united with other states like Greece, Portugal and Spain made this party to increase. It did not take the Group long before they saw the need and the privileged of cooperation; in 1987 they cooperated with people’s party group thus increasing their number. (Grolier, Inc, 2002). In 1992, the already existing confederation was changed to party of European socialist, whose manifesto had more issues to deal with compare to the election manifesto and the added areas included gender equality, fighting organized crimes and democracy among others. The party had its second leader in the 1994’s election after the party won two hundred and fifteen (215) out of the available six hundred and twenty six (626). After a five year period of ruling, the parliament refused to sign for approval of the commission’s EU budget handling, and this lead to crisis. This was because of the allegation of corruption made to two of the socialists’ members. The socialists tried to bloc the order made by the commission that the member’s concerned had to resign, by their president trying to vote confidence vote in the commission, since the PES took the issue as a false allegation made to stop them from participating in the year’s election. Since socialist were the majority they were on the government side, they decided to stop helping or rather supporting the other party thus facilitating santer commission’s to resign. After the five years of ruling, elections was carried out, the socialists lost the votes to people’s party with the winning party attaining two hundred and thirty three the socialists had only one hundred and eighty. In the 2004 elections the socialist party lost once more by getting only two hundred seats in seven hundred and thirty two seats. The European Political history has been an evolutional process. The struggle was aimed at either attaining independence, or becoming autonomous. The European politics is composed of the parliament headed by a President from a party with the majority seats, the commission, and a council. Each of its constituent has its mandate and powers. The Socialist’ Party headed in the parliament longer till 1999.

City vs. Country

Podcasts – Themes – City vs. country Introduction Download the LearnEnglish Themes podcast. You’ll find more information on this page: http://www. britishcouncil. org/learnenglish-podcasts-themes. htm This support pack contains the following materials: †¢ the article that you can listen to in the podcast †¢ an optional language activity based on the article †¢ links to other activities on the LearnEnglish website on this theme (city vs. country). Read the article Town or country mouse? by John Russell Once upon a time, there were two mice – cousins. One lived in the town and the other in the country.The town mouse was a very superior mouse, who thought that living in the town was far better than living the country. So one day, he invited his country cousin to stay with him in his town house and experience the civilized lifestyle of the town. They sat down to a meal, which to the country mouse was a feast. â€Å"Goodness me† he said. à ¢â‚¬Å"If I was in the country, I would be having only simple bread and cheese in the quiet of my peaceful home. † Suddenly, there was a loud noise at the door. â€Å"Don’t worry,† said the town mouse, â€Å"that’s just my neighbour – the dog, he wants to join us for dinner. The country mouse ate a little faster. Another noise was heard outside, even louder this time. â€Å"Oh dear† said the town mouse, â€Å"the cat who lives facing my house wants to join us too. † Quickly eating the last of his meal, the country mouse said, â€Å"thank you, but I think I will return to the peace and quiet of my own house after all! † Then he ran back home as fast as his legs could carry him. This simple tale (taken from Aesop’s famous stories) shows that what may be a good place to live for one person, may not be good for another.A modern version of this story might look like this: Maria lives in a big city surrounded by the speed and c onvenience of urban life. She works in an office with 1000 other employees, and travels too and from there on a crowded Metro. Her home is a flat overlooking a busy city-street, which is always alive with the sound of traffic and people passing by. After work she meets with friends in a bar or restaurant before going on to a disco or nightclub. Weekends are spent in the shopping mall with its numerous shops, multi-screen cinemas, fast food and entertainment complexes. Alex, however, lives in a small village in the countryside.He cycles to work down country lanes every morning, the sound of tractors, birds and animals in his ears. In the evening, he relaxes at home in front of the fire with a good book to read. At weekends, he goes for long walks in the fields with his dog. Unfortunately, life is not as simple as stories make it. A lot of today’s ‘town mice’ such as Maria would be happy to live in the country. Many modern cities have very large populations (Tokyo or Mexico City – over 25 million) and can be crowded, dirty and dangerous places to live. More than half the world’s population now lives in cities.In much of Europe and North America this can be as high as much as 80% of a country’s population. (According to the United Nations, approximately 1 billion people in cities are living in slum conditions – overcrowded and unhealthy). The 18th Century marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the depopulation of the countryside, and the move to towns. The towns became places of mass employment in factories and offices. Today, many town dwellers wish to The United Kingdom’s international organisation for educational opportunities and cultural relations. We are registered in England as a charity.